Bupropion

By F. Norris. California State University, Chico. 2019.

The female body prepares for reproduction every month for most of a woman’s adult life buy bupropion 150mg without prescription, producing an ovum and then measuring out delicate levels of hormones to prepare for nurturing a developing embryo buy bupropion 150 mg without a prescription. When a fertilized ovum fails to show up, the body hits the biological reset button and sloughs off the uterine lining before building it up all over again for next month’s reproductive roulette. But that’s nothing compared to what the female body does when a fertilized egg actually settles in for a nine-month stay. Strap yourselves in for a tour of the incredible female baby-making machinery — practice questions included. Identifying the Female Reproductive Parts and Their Functions First and foremost in the female reproductive repertoire are the two ovaries, which usually take a turn every other month to produce a single ovum. Roughly the size and shape of large unshelled almonds, the female gonads lie on either side of the uterus, below and slightly behind the Fallopian tubes (also called the uterine tubes). Each ovary has a stroma (body) of connective tissue surrounded by a dense fibrous connective tissue called the tunica albuginea (literally “white covering”); yes, that’s the same name as the tissue surrounding the testes. In fact, the ovaries in a female and the testes in a male are homologous, meaning that they share similar origins. External to the tunica albuginea is a layer of cuboidal cells known as the germinal epithelium. During growth of the ovary in a female fetus prior to birth, the germinal epithelium dips into the body of the ovary in various places. Over time, a mass of epithelial cells called primordial follicles, or primary follicles, becomes separated from the main body of the ovary. The ovaries of a young girl contain from 100,000 to 400,000 of these follicles, most of them present at birth. Usually, only one follicle matures to become a Graafian follicle (twins, triplets, or even more fetuses result if more than one follicle matures to the point of releas- ing an ovum). One cell of this mass, the oocyte (produced by oogenesis, or meiosis), becomes the ovum while the remaining cells surround the ovum as part of the cumulus oophorus and others line the fluid-filled follicular cavity as the membrana granulosa. As the ovum matures, its follicle moves toward the ovary’s surface and begins secreting the hormone estrogen, which signals the endometrium (uterine lining) to build up in preparation for pregnancy. Ringed by follicular cells in what’s called the corona radiata, the ovum enters the coelom (body cavity) and is swept into the Fallopian tube by a fringe of tissue called fimbriae. It takes approximately three days for the ovum to travel from the Fallopian tube to the uterus. Meanwhile, back at the ovary, a clot has formed inside the ruptured follicle and the membrana granulosa cells are being replaced by yellow luteal cells, forming a corpus luteum (literally “yellow body”) on the surface of the ovary. This new endocrine gland secretes progesterone, a hormone that signals the uterine lining to prepare for possible implantation of a fertilized egg, inhibits the maturing of Graafian follicles, ovulation, and the production of estrogen to prevent menstruation; and stimulates further growth in the mammary glands (which is why some women get sore breasts a few days before their periods begin). If pregnancy occurs, the placenta also will release proges- terone to prevent menstruation throughout the pregnancy. If the ovum isn’t fertilized, the corpus luteum dissolves after 10 to 14 days to be replaced by scar tissue called the corpus albicans. If pregnancy does occur, the corpus luteum remains and grows for about six months before disintegrating. Only about 400 of a woman’s primordial follicles ever get a chance to make the trip to the uterus. The rest ripen to various stages before degenerating into what are known as atretic follicles (or corpora atretica) over the course of her lifetime. Fallopian tubes, oviducts, uterine tubes — call them what you will, but they’re where the real business of fertilization takes place. Because an egg must be fertilized within 24 hours of its release from the ovary to remain viable. These small, muscular tubes lined with cilia are nearly 5 inches long and, somewhat surprisingly, aren’t directly connected to the ovaries. Instead, the funnel-shaped end, the infundibulum, of a tube is fragmented into finger-like projections called fimbriae that help to move Chapter 14: Carrying Life Forward: The Female Reproductive System 221 the ovum from the body cavity into the tube. When it’s in the tube, where fertilization takes place, the combined motions of both cilia and peristalsis (the same muscle contractions that move food through the digestive system) propel the ovum toward the uterus for implantation. If a fertilized egg implants anywhere else — say in the hollow of the Fallopian tube itself — the pregnancy is referred to as ectopic and the woman must have immediate surgery to remove the developing embryo before it can damage any vital organs. While not attached to the ovaries, the Fallopian tubes are attached to the pear-shaped uterus, which is located between the urinary bladder and the rectum. Its upper, wide end is called the fundus; the lower, narrow end that opens into the vagina is the cervix; and the central region is the body. Endometrium lines the uterus in varying amounts depending on the stage of a woman’s menstrual cycle or pregnancy. This lining is sup- ported by a thick muscular layer called the myometrium, which is under the control of the autonomic nervous system and comes into play when the uterus contracts, such as during labor. Sperm enter and menstrual fluid leaves through the vagina, a muscular tube that connects the uterus with the outside of the body. Lined with a fold of highly elastic mucous membrane, the vagina can enlarge greatly during childbirth.

Prolonged repolarization is the time when the elec- trical impulse returns to normal and is ready to fire again cheap bupropion 150 mg online. Slow (calcium) channel blockers were discussed previously in this chapter and include verapamil (Calan 150mg bupropion free shipping, Isoptin) and diltiazem (Cardizem). Essential hypertension affects 90% of patients who are hypertensive and is caused by conditions other than those related to renal and endocrine disorders. Secondary hypertension affects 10% of patients who are hypertensive and is caused by secondary disorders of the renal and endocrine systems. The renin-angiotensin system increases blood pressure by retaining sodium and water. Once baroreceptors in the aorta and carotid sinus detect adequate blood pressure, the baroreceptors signal the vasomotor center in the medulla to signal the renin-angiotensin system to excrete sodium and water, thereby lowering the blood pressure. Each step uses a differ- ent group of antihypertensive drugs to control hypertension. Diuretics Diuretics promote sodium depletion, which decreases extracellular fluid volume. Loop diuret- ics, such as furosemide (Lasix), are usually recommended for these patients because they do not depress renal flow. Diuretics are not used if hypertension is the result of renal-angiotensin- aldosterone involvement because these drugs tend to elevate the serum renin level. When they are combined with the thiazide diuretic, serum potassium loss is minimized. Sympathetic depressants (sympatholytics) Sympatholytics (see Chapter 15) are divided into five groups. Direct-acting arteriolar vasodilators Direct-acting arteriolar vasodilators are Step 3 drugs that act by relaxing the smooth muscles of the blood vessels—mainly the arteries—causing vasodilation. Direct-acting arteriolar vasodilators promote an increase in blood flow to the brain and kidneys. Beta blockers are frequently prescribed with arteriolar vasodila- tors to decrease the heart rate, counteracting the effect of reflex tachycardia. A list of drugs utilized in the treatment of hypertension is provided in the Appendix. Calcium channel blockers These drugs dilate coronary arteries and arterioles and decrease total peripheral vascular resistance by vasodilation. If blood pressure still does not decrease, two or three additional drugs are administered to the patient. These include alpha blockers, direct-acting vasodila- tors, or adrenergic neuron blockers. A list of drugs utilized in the treatment of high blood pressure is provided in the Appendix. When aldosterone is blocked, sodium is excreted along with water and potassium is retained. These drugs cause little change in cardiac output or heart rate and lower peripheral resistance. They are used primarily to treat hypertension; some of the agents are also effective in treating heart failure. Angioedema is very similar to urticaria, with which it often coexists and over- laps. The swellings occurs especially in the lips and other parts of the mouth and throat, the eyelids, the genitals, and the hands and feet. Angioedema is life-threatening if swelling in the mouth or throat makes it difficult to breathe. Less often the sheer amount of swelling means that so much fluid has moved out of the blood circulation that blood pressure drops dangerously. As discussed previously in this chapter, calcium channel blockers decrease calcium levels and promote vasodilation. Such combinations include benazepril with amlodipine (Lotrel), enalapril with diltiazem (Teczem), enalapril with felodipine (Lexxel), and trandolapril with verapamil (Tarka). Diuretics lower blood pressure and decrease peripheral and pulmonary edema in congestive heart failure and renal or liver disorders by inhibiting sodium and water reabsorption from the kidney tubules resulting in increased urine flow (diuresis). It moves through blood vessels eventually causing a blockage—called a thromboem- bolism—resulting in decreased blood flow (ischemia) that causes death (necro- sis) of tissues in the effected area. Thromboembolisms disintegrate naturally in about two weeks through the fibrinolytic mechanism, which breaks down fibrin. An acute myocardial infarction (heart attack) can be caused by a thromboembolism block- ing a coronary artery. The ischemic (without oxygen) tissue becomes necrotic (dies) if left with- out an oxygen supply.

In this reaction buy bupropion 150mg line, an enolate anion is formed from the reaction between an aldehyde or a ketone and an aqueous base buy 150 mg bupropion visa, e. The enolate anion reacts with another molecule of aldehyde or ketone to give b-hydroxyaldehyde or b-hydroxyketone, respectively (see Section 5. The carboxyl group takes priority over any other functional groups as follows: carboxylic acid > ester > amide > nitrile > aldehyde > ketone > alcohol > amine > alkene > alkyne. Unsaturated acids are named using the name of the alkene with -e replaced with -oic acid. The chain is numbered starting with the carboxyl group, a number designates the location of the double bond and Z or E is used. The root name comes from the longest carbon chain containing both carboxyl groups. The carbon is sp -hybridized, and the OÀÀH bond lies in the plane, eclipsing the CÀÀÀÀO double bond. Strong aqueous bases can completely deprotonate carboxylic acids, and salts of carboxylic acids are formed. Strong aqueous mineral acids readily convert the salt back to the carboxylic acids. H+ Physical properties of carboxylic acids Carboxylic acids are polar molecules due to the polar nature of both the OÀÀH and CÀÀÀÀO functionalities. H Hydrogen bonds to water in aqueous solution Preparation of carboxylic acids Acetic acid, the most important carboxylic acid, can be prepared by catalytic air oxidation of acetaldehyde. H3O 1o Amide Reactions of carboxylic acids The most important reactions of carboxylic acids are the conversions to various carboxylic acid derivatives, e. The reaction is acid catalysed and is known as Fischer esterification (see Section 5. The important acid derivatives are acid chlorides, acid anhydrides, esters and amides. Although nitriles are not directly carboxylic acid derivatives, they are conveniently hydrolysed to carboxylic acids by acid or base catalysts. Moreover, nitriles can be easily prepared through dehydration of amides, which are carboxylic acid derivatives. In general, it is easy to convert more reactive derivatives into less reactive derivatives. Therefore, an acid chloride is easily converted to an anhydride, ester or amide, but an amide can only be hydrolysed to a carboxylic acid. Acid chlorides and acid anhydrides are hydrolysed easily, whereas amides are hydrolysed slowly in boiling alkaline water. Carboxylic acid derivatives undergo a variety of reactions under both acidic and basic conditions, and almost all involve the nucleophilic acyl substitution mechanism (see Section 5. Acid chlorides are sufficiently reactive with H2O, and quite readily hydrolysed to carboxylic acid (see Section 5. Acid chloride reacts with benzene in the presence of Lewis acid (AlCl3)in Friedel–Crafts acylation (see Section 5. These compounds are called acid anhydrides or acyl anhy- drides, because they are condensed from two molecules of carboxylic acid by the loss of a water molecule. An acid anhydride may be symmetrical, where two acyl groups are identical, or it may be mixed, where two different acyl groups are bonded to an oxygen atom. Mixed anhydrides that consist of two different acid-derived parts are named using the names of the two individual acids with an alphabetical order. Five- or six-membered cyclic anhydrides are prepared by heating dicarboxylic acids at high temperatures. They are fairly readily converted to the other less reactive carboxylic acid derivatives, e. Acid anhydrides undergo many reactions similar to those of acid chlorides, and they can often be used interchangeably. The preparation of esters from other esters in the presence of an acid or a base catalyst is called transesterification. They are converted to carboxylic acid by acid or base hydrolysis, and to another ester by acid or base alcoholysis (transesterification). The 1 ,2 or 3 amides are obtained from esters by treatment with ammonia or 1 or 2 amines, respectively. H2O O R C H Aldehyde Another important reaction of esters is the Claisen condensation. Inthis reaction, an enolate anion is formed from the reaction between an ester and a strong base, e. The enolate anion reacts with another molecule of ester to produce b-ketoester (see Section 5. Alkyl groups on nitrogen atoms are named as substituents, and are prefaced by N-or N,N-, followed by the name(s) of the alkyl group(s). O O O H3C C N C N N H H H Acetanilide Benzanilide 4-Aminobutanoic acid lactam Physical properties of amides Amides are much less basic than their parent amines. The lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom is delocalized on the carbonyl oxygen, and in the presence of a strong acid the oxygen is protonated first.

Perceiving Form One of the important processes required in vision is the perception of form buy 150 mg bupropion with amex. German psychologists in the 1930s and 1940s order bupropion 150 mg without a prescription, including Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), argued that we create forms out of their component sensations based on the idea of the gestalt, a meaningfully organized whole. We tend to group Do you see four or eight Proximity nearby figures images at right? The rather than in principle of continuity leads more us to see most lines as discontinuous following the smoothest Continuity ways. We tend to fill in Closure leads us to see a Closure gaps in an single spherical object at Figure 4. Perceiving Depth Depth perception is the ability to perceive three-dimensional space and to accurately judge distance. Without depth perception, we would be unable to drive a car, thread a needle, or simply [8] navigate our way around the supermarket (Howard & Rogers, 2001). Research has found that depth perception is in part based on innate capacities and in part learned through experience [9] (Witherington, 2005). The infants were placed on one side of the “cliff,‖ while their Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. Gibson and Walk found that most infants either crawled away from the cliff or remained on the board and cried because they wanted to go to their mothers, but the infants perceived a chasm that they instinctively could not cross. Further research has found that even very young children who cannot yet crawl are fearful of heights [11] (Campos, Langer, & Krowitz, 1970). On the other hand, studies have also found that infants improve their hand-eye coordination as they learn to better grasp objects and as they gain more [12] experience in crawling, indicating that depth perception is also learned (Adolph, 2000). Depth perception is the result of our use of depth cues, messages from our bodies and the external environment that supply us with information about space and distance. Binocular depth cues are depth cues that are created by retinal image disparity—that is, the space between our eyes, and thus which require the coordination of both eyes. One outcome of retinal disparity is that the images projected on each eye are slightly different from each other. The visual cortex automatically merges the two images into one, enabling us to perceive depth. Three-dimensional movies make use of retinal disparity by using 3-D glasses that the viewer wears to create a different image on each eye. The perceptual system quickly, easily, and unconsciously turns the disparity into 3-D. An important binocular depth cue is convergence, the inward turning of our eyes that is required to focus on objects that are less than about 50 feet away from us. The visual cortex uses the size of the convergence angle between the eyes to judge the object’s distance. You will be able to feel your eyes converging if you slowly bring a finger closer to your nose while continuing to focus on it. When you close one eye, you no longer feel the tension—convergence is a binocular depth cue that requires both eyes to work. As the lens changes its curvature to focus on distant or close objects, information relayed from the muscles attached to the lens helps us determine an object’s distance. Accommodation is only effective at short viewing distances, however, so while it comes in handy when threading a needle or tying shoelaces, it is far less effective when driving or playing sports. Monocular depth cues are depth cues that help us perceive depth using [13] only one eye (Sekuler & Blake, 2006). Assuming that the objects in a scene are At right, the cars in the same size, smaller the distance appear objects are perceived smaller than those Relative size as farther away. When they appear closer together, we Linear Parallel lines appear to determine they are perspective converge at a distance. At right, because the When one object blue star covers the overlaps another pink bar, it is seen as object, we view it as closer than the Interposition closer. Perceiving Motion Many animals, including human beings, have very sophisticated perceptual skills that allow them to coordinate their own motion with the motion of moving objects in order to create a collision with that object. Bats and birds use this mechanism to catch up with prey, dogs use it to catch a Frisbee, and humans use it to catch a moving football. The brain detects motion partly from the changing size of an image on the retina (objects that look bigger are usually closer to us) and in part from the relative brightness of objects. The beta effect refers to the perception of motion that occurs when different images are presented next to each other in succession (see Note 4. The visual cortex fills in the missing part of the motion and we see the object moving. A related effect is thephi phenomenon, in which we perceive a sensation of motion caused by the appearance and disappearance of objects that are near each other. The phi phenomenon looks like a moving zone or cloud of background color surrounding the flashing objects.

Overall only 30 per cent of their sample had ever used condoms discount 150mg bupropion visa, while 70 per cent had not purchase 150 mg bupropion otc. Fife-Schaw and Breakwell (1992) undertook an overview of the literature on condom use among young people and found that between 24 per cent and 58 per cent of 16- to 24-year-olds had used a condom during their most recent sexual encounter. In terms of their condom use with their current partner, 25 per cent reported always using a condom with their current male partner, 12 per cent reported always using a condom with their current female partner, 27 per cent reported some- times/never using a condom with their male partner and 38 per cent reported some- times/never using a condom with their female partner. In terms of their non-current partner, 30 per cent had had unprotected sex with a man and 34 per cent had had unprotected sex with a woman. Bisexuals are believed to present a bridge between the homosexual and heterosexual populations and these data suggest that their frequency of condom use is low. They reported that over the one-year follow-up, condom use during vaginal intercourse with prostitutes/clients was high and remained high, condom use with private partners was low and remained low, but that both men and women reduced their number of sexual partners by 50 per cent. The results from the General Household Survey (1993) provided some further insights into changes in condom use in Britain from 1983 to 1991 (see Figure 8. These data indicate an overall increase in condom use as the usual form of contraception, which is particularly apparent in the younger age groups. However, since this time there has been an increase in rectal gonorrhoea and clinical experience, cross-sectional and longitudinal Fig. These data suggest that many individuals do report using condoms, although not always on a regular basis. Therefore, although the health promotion messages may be reaching many individuals, many others are not complying with their recommendations. Predicting condom use Simple models using knowledge only have been used to examine condom use. These models are similar to those used to predict other health-related behaviours, including contraceptive use for pregnancy avoidance, and illustrate varying attempts to understand cognitions in the context of the relationship and the broader social context. Rosenstock 1966; Becker and Rosenstock 1987) (see Chapter 2) and has been used to predict condom use. They reported that the components of the model were not good predictors and only perceived susceptibility was related to condom use. This suggests that condom use is a habitual behaviour and that placing current condom use into the context of time and habits may be the way to assess this behaviour. This presents the problem of a ceiling effect with only small differences in ratings of this variable. Abraham and Sheeran (1993) suggest that social skills may be better predictors of safe sex. These models address the problem of how beliefs are turned into action using the ‘behavioural intentions’ component. In addition, they attempt to address the problem of placing beliefs within a context by an emphasis on social cognitions (the normative beliefs component). In a recent study of condom use, the best predictors appeared to be a combination of normative beliefs involving peers, friends, siblings, previous partners, parents and the general public. This suggests that although cognitions may play a role in predicting condom use, this essentially interactive behaviour is probably best understood within the context of both the relationship and the broader social world, highlighting the important role of social cognitions in the form of normative beliefs. The role of self-efficacy The concept of self-efficacy (Bandura 1977) has been incorporated into many models of behaviour. In terms of condom use, self-efficacy can refer to factors such as confidence in buying condoms, confidence in using condoms or confidence in suggesting that condoms are used. In addition, this model may be particularly relevant to condom use as it emphasizes time and habit. For example, whereas Fisher (1984) reported an association between intentions and actual behaviour, Abraham et al. However, such studies have used very different popula- tions (homosexual, heterosexual, adolescents, adults). Perhaps models of condom use should be constructed to fit the cognitive sets of different populations; attempts to develop one model for everyone may ignore the multitude of different cognitions held by different individuals within different groups. Models that emphasize cognitions and information processing intrinsically regard behaviour as the result of information processing – an individualistic approach to behaviour. In particular, early models tended to focus on representations of an individual’s risks without taking into account their interactions with the outside world. However, recent social cognition models have attempted to remedy this situation by emphasizing cognitions about the indi- vidual’s social world (the normative beliefs) and by including elements of emotion (the behaviour becomes less rational). Furthermore, the models predict that high levels of susceptibility will relate to less risk-taking behaviour (e. In attempts to include an analysis of the place of this behaviour (the relationship), variables such as peer norms, partner norms and partner support have been added. However, these variables are still accessed by asking one individual about their beliefs about the relationship.

It provides thermal therapy to enhance the immune system re- sponse and stop the virus 150 mg bupropion amex. Clinical studies have shown that it can prevent outbreaks when used during the prodromal phase buy cheap bupropion 150 mg online. There are no side effects; it can be used by children over six years and pregnant women; available without a prescription in most pharmacies. Once the blisters have appeared, try the following: C • Apply an ice pack, wrapped in a washcloth, for five minutes several times a day to ease pain and help dry out the sores. Top Recommended Supplements Lemon balm: An herb, also known as Melissa officinalis, lemon balm has antiviral proper- ties that can help speed healing and shorten the duration of an outbreak. Lysine: An amino acid that inhibits growth of the cold sore virus and may reduce recur- rence; take at the first sign of a cold sore. Complementary Supplement Antioxidants: The antioxidants vitamins C and E may help to promote healing and strength- en the immune system’s response to the virus. To cut your risk of an outbreak, get adequate rest, reduce stress, avoid sharing utensils or personal items, and wear sunscreen and lip balm. Use a cold pack and witch hazel to relieve pain and prevent spreading, and a cream with lemon balm to promote healing. Children are most susceptible to contracting the virus and may experience as many as 10 colds a year. As we get older, we develop immunity to many viruses and are less likely to get colds. For example, if you are beside someone who has the virus and coughs or sneezes and you inhale those virus droplets, then you can catch a cold. It can also be spread by hand-to-hand contact or by touching an object that has been contaminated with the virus and then rubbing your eyes, nose, or mouth. If you catch a cold, there are a variety of lifestyle measures and supplements that can help speed healing and improve symptoms. In some cases, though, a cold can lead to an ear infection, sinusitis, strep throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, or a flare-up of asthma. However, they do share some common symptoms such as aching, weakness, sore throat, and congestion. Here is where they differ: The flu causes a sudden onset of severe aching, pain, headache, and high fever (39º–40ºC). Colds develop more slowly, don’t usually cause fever, and cause only mild aching and fatigue. The flu is a serious respiratory illness and can lead to bronchitis, pneumonia, and respiratory failure. Over-the-counter remedies, such as antihistamines, decongestants, and cough suppressants, may provide some symptom relief, but these products do not prevent or speed healing. Antihistamines cause dry eyes/nose/mouth and drowsiness, and decongestants can raise blood pres- sure and cause dizziness and insomnia. Tylenol (acetaminophen) can help reduce fever, aches, and pains, but it should be avoided by those with liver or kidney disease. Aspirin can also help these symptoms, but it should not be taken by children or teenagers because of the risk of Reye’s syn- drome. Those with kidney disease, ulcers, or risk of bleeding (taking blood thinners) should also avoid aspirin. It is not necessary to see your doctor for a cold unless you or your child have a fever greater than 38ºC along with aching, fatigue, sweating, and chills, or if there is vomiting, ear pain, coloured phlegm, or if symptoms persist longer than 10 days. C • For a sore throat, gargle with warm salt water and try lozenges that contain one or more of the following ingredients: slippery elm, marshmallow, vitamin C, zinc, eucalyptus, or menthol. Echinacea: Shown in several studies to reduce the severity and frequency of cold symptoms. Dosage: 300–600 mg capsules twice daily or 2–4 mL tincture four to six times daily at the first sign of a cold for seven to 10 days. Vitamin C: Several studies have shown that vitamin C can reduce the duration and severity of colds. Zinc lozenges: Help relieve symptoms (coughing, sore throat, and runny nose) and shorten the duration of a cold. Dosage: One lozenge every few hours while awake, up to a maximum 4 to 6 lozenges daily. Complementary Supplements Aged garlic extract: Taken regularly, it may help prevent colds by supporting immune func- tion. Look for a product that provides at least one billion live cells and includes Lactobacillus acidophilus and bifido- bacterium, such as Kyo-Dophilus. Some research suggests that it can help prevent and shorten the duration of a cold.

Etude de la translucidite et descanalicules dentinaires pour l’apprdciatio de l’age order bupropion 150 mg overnight delivery. Root dentine transparency: Age determination of human teeth using computerized densitometric analysis buy bupropion 150 mg otc. Te biological basis for seasonal increments in dental cementum and thier applications to archaeological research. Incremental lines in root cementum of human teeth: An approach to their ultrastructural nature by microscopy. Evaluation of preparation, staining and microscopic techniques for counting incremental lines in cemen- tum of human teeth. On the validity of individual age-at-death diag- nosis by incremental line counts in human dental cementum. Tooth cementum annu- lation for age estimation: Results from a large known-age validation study. Age-at-death diagnosis and determination of life-history parameters by incremental lines in human dental cementum as an identifcation aid. Dental pathology of American Indian tribes of varied environ- mental and food conditions. Tooth wear and culture: A survey of tooth functions among some prehistoric popula- tions. Severity, distribution, and correlates of occlusal tooth wear in a sample of Mexican-American and European-American adults. Te accuracy and precision of third molar development as an indicator of chronological age in Hispanics. Tird molar root development in relation to chronological age: A large sample sized retrospective study. Radiographic survey of third molar development in relation to chronological age among Japanese juveniles. Forensic age estimation in living subjects: Te ethnic factor in wisdom tooth mineralization. Reliability of third molar development for age estimation in a Texas Hispanic population: A comparison study. Te accuracy and precision of the third man- dibular molar as an indicator of chronological age. Dental maturity in South France: A com- parison between Demirjian’s method and polynomial functions. Some considerations regarding the use of amino acid racemization in human dentine as an indicator of age at death. Paleoanthropological applications of amino acid racemization dating of fossil bones and teeth. Aspartic acid racemisation in the human lens during ageing and in cataract formation. Postmortem estimation of age at death based on aspartic acid racemization in dentin: Its applicability for root dentin. A review of the methodological aspects of aspartic acid racemization analysis for use in forensic science. Dead victim identifcation: Age determination by analysis of bomb-pulse radiocarbon in tooth enamel. Te marks made by human teeth in inanimate objects and in human skin have been reported and recorded in both ancient and modern history. Although scientifc information is limited in early recorded history, the anecdotal information is vivid and sometimes astonishing. Although he was in prison at the time of the alleged attacks, the bitemarks were judged to have been made by Burroughs’s specter. B’s would then appear upon them, which could be distinguished from those of some other mens” (Cotton Mather in Burr3). Burroughs’s mouth was reportedly pried open in court and his teeth were said to match the bitemarks. Te above examples notwithstanding, there were other early cases that indicate that bitemark evidence was recognized and utilized in Europe, Asia, and North America, with cases cited in France, Belgium, England, Scotland, Japan, Canada, and the United States. Tese cases included bitemarks in foodstufs, other inanimate items, and human skin. Many of the same argu- ments that are ofered in modern cases were argued by both prosecution and defense teams in those cases. Te teeth of one of the two accused men were judged to “ft” the bitemark in the cheese, leading to a conviction. Some of the most noteworthy twentieth-century cases are listed here in chronological order and will be discussed in more detail in the next sections: Doyle v.